The above examples illustrate the monitoring assessment of the status of and trends in biodiversity using GIS. However, there are some difficulties in this assessment, including: 1 data quality, i. Case study: GIS-based approach to the spatial analysis of endangered arboreal species in Egypt Introduction Data showing species and habitat distribution, or sometimes models that predict these distributions, are used to analyse the effectiveness of existing conservation areas.

The gap analysis system developed in the U. Gap analysis helps to locate priority areas for conservation action and research. It is considered to be a rapid method for evaluating conservation requirements for the protection of biological diversity. Gap analysis projects have several applications, including the following: they can be used to determine the representations of species, and natural plant and animal communities within areas being managed for biodiversity conservation; they provide data to model wildlife habitat distributions, and they provide a baseline of information about the distributions of plant and animal species and communities that can be used for compara- tive analysis of future changes in those distributions that is, monitoring environmental change.

Distributions of a range of species are modeled with GIS using maps of vegetation types and observations on the distributions of species of interest.

These distributions are combined within the GIS to identify areas of the greatest diversity or core areas for different species. The composite information could then be com- pared with the distribution of protected areas to highlight significant areas that need conservation. An ideal set of data for assessing the status of biodiversity includes the distribution of species and their conservation status, the habitat characteristics of these species, and human activities affecting these habitats and their impact.

Also some data on the ecological and economic value of species are required. These data can be stored on a map distribution associated with tabular data to show attributes. In this study, Davis et al.

The present case study is an illustration of the above concepts. It presents a specific component of a conservation program: the distribution of a range of plant species arboreal associated with attribute data describing the ecological and economic importance of each species, its life form and degree of threat.

These data are modeled in a GIS-based database and overlaid on spatial data of the protected areas declared and proposed in Egypt, to identify significant areas that require conservation. The data on arboreal species used in the present study are the threatened species of trees and shrubs in Egypt as recognized by El-Hadidi et al. The species were selected as they constitute the main framework of the ecosystems in which they occur and therefore, have high ecological significance for these ecosystems.

Arboreal species can be con- sidered as indicator taxa that incorporate other vegetation communities and animal species specially birds. Therefore the present study examines, using GIS, the relation of the distribution of arboreal species with other existing spatial data, e. Generally, arboreal species represent a part of the wealth of Egyptian flora that is threatened or endangered to different degrees, and calls for conservation actions to be taken.

The objectives of the present study are: 1 establishing a digital database of endan- gered arboreal species including their spatial distribution, ecological importance, degree of threat, commonness and economic importance; 2 analysing the relative contribu- tion of each protected area in terms of contribution to conserving the biodiversity of threatened arboreal species in Egypt; 3 conducting gap analysis to identify hot spots and gaps in the network of protected areas declared and proposed for formulating sound biodiversity conservation management strategies; and 4 assessing the relation- ships between the distribution of arboreal species, phytogeographical subdivision and internationally important bird areas in Egypt by integrating these data in a common GIS-based system.

SALEM Data acquisition and treatment The present study demonstrates how a compilation of existing data in a GIS-based approach can be used to organize, synthesize, and analyse spatially these data using different overlays an asset of GIS analysis to improve the assessment and monitoring of biodiversity.

The following is a list of the core data used to establish a nucleus for a biodiversity database management system based on GIS: 1 A base map of Egypt of appropriate scale. These data form a list of threatened arboreal species, their distribution, ecological importance and degree of threat.

A point indicating the location of each species in the above list was plotted on a base map of Egypt, and other data were attached to the map as attribute data.

These data describe the degree of threat, commonness, life form i. The data were sorted according to type as spatial or aspatial. Commonness Endemic 10 Very rare 7 Rare 4 Common 2 3. Life form Tree 10 ecological importance Intermediate small tree or large shrub 8 Shrub 7 Woody herb 4 Perennial herb 2 4.

Overlay analyses of the study data Overlay no. Overlay description Indication 1 All maps of species distribution Range and distribution of the onto the map of Egypt. Assessment of the overlap between protected areas declared and proposed and important bird areas. The aspatial data were associated within the spatial database as appropriate.

The species names were revised using the checklist published by Boulous The aspatial data on threatened arboreal species, degree of threat, and ecological and economic value were assembled in the database for every species, and were used to calculate a conservation value, CV, for each species. This value was obtained according to a scoring system on a graduated scale of 10 identified by the criteria listed in Table 2.

The CV for each species, as a function of four criteria each scored out of 10 were added to yield a value out of 40 which was then divided by four to produce an average conservation value ACV out of 10 for each of the plant species listed in the database. The ACVs for all arboreal species occurring spatially inside the boundaries of any particular protected area were summed to produce a cumulative conservation value CCV for each protected area.

Several overlay analyses were applied to the data in the present study. They are presented in Table 3. Results Data on spatial and aspatial attributes described in the above section constitute the nucleus of a GIS-based biodiversity database that has been assembled for the first time. The results of the study are presented as maps and tables. The list of species and the scores assigned to each according to the criteria described in Table 2 are provided in Appendix 1.

Cumulative conservation value CCV of threatened arboreal species existing in the established protected areas. Figure 1 a illustrates the scale of conservation values 0—10 on the Y-axis versus the declared protected areas 21 on the X-axis. The bars in the figure indicate the range of ACVs for arboreal species in each particular protected area, while the numbers between brackets on the bars indicate the number of species have each this particular ACV. The numbers in circles on the X-axis indicate the CCVs for all species that exist in any particular protected area.

Protected areas with no corresponding CCV are either not applicable marine areas or do not include any of the threatened arboreal species. The CCVs are used to indicate the contribution of each protected area to the conservation of biodiversity of threatened arboreal species. If information on other plant life-forms are similarly treated and their CCVs are added to the above values, an average value for each protected area could be calculated as an assessment of its conservation index CI.

From the same figure, it is clear that the Elba protected area has the highest CCV and, thus, contributes highly to the conservation of the biodiversity of threatened arboreal species.

This is followed by the St. Catherine and Taba protectorates. Similarly, in Fig. Table 4 summarizes the CCVs and provides relative rankings for the 40 protected areas according to their contribution to the conservation of biodiversity of threatened arboreal species. Accordingly, the 40 protected areas were fall into 18 levels. These levels when analysed were categorized into five orders from the highest to the lowest levels.

The first order category is consists of three of the already declared protectorates. It is remarkable that some of the proposed protected areas have higher relative rankings than some of the already declared protected areas. Thus, the second order category is comprised of five protectorates, three of which are proposed protected areas, with relative CCVs of 4, 5 and 6, while the third order category is comprised of six protectorates rankings, five of which are proposed protected areas.

Thirteen of the analysed protected areas do not contribute to the conservation of the biodiversity of threatened arboreal species, either because they are marine or do not contain any of the threatened arboreal species in their vegetation composition. The overlay analysis in the present study Table 3 , starts with five main coverages: 1 the base map of Egypt; 2 the location map of the threatened arboreal species; 3 the location map of the phytogeographical subdivisions Fig.

Four overlays were carried out to highlight the relationships imbedded in the data. Each of these overlays will be discussed and interpreted separately. Overlay 1: Maps of the threatened arboreal species species overlaid onto a base map of Egypt Fig. The resulting map illustrates the distribution of these species in Egypt, while the species names, commonness, richness, ecological life form and economic number of uses values are associated with the map as attribute data. This map is used to define the regions in Egypt occupied by the greatest number of different threatened arboreal species.

It is obvious that certain small areas are occupied by relatively large numbers of threatened arboreal species high diversity , e. Gebel Elba '40 species , and south- ern Sinai '20 species. Other larger areas are occupied by smaller numbers of segregate arboreal species low diversity , e. The following overlay was applied to add precision to the above results.

Catherine D 94 75 2 1st 1—3 3. Gebel Maghara P 15 25 6 7. Showela P 9 00 10 Qattara P 6 75 11 Hamata P 6 25 13 White desert P Wadi Qena P Girafi P Um-Dabadib P Ashtoum El-Gamil D No contribution Forest D Nile islands D Wadi Assuti D The phytogeographical subdivisions of El-Hadidi et al.

Overlay 2: Map of the phytogeographical subdivisions overlaid on the above map of the distribution of threatened arboreal species Fig. It is clear that the Sahelian Scrub Sa was the richest phytogeographical subdivision, with about 46 arboreal threatened species followed by the Isthemic Desert phytogeographic subdivision Di with about 15 species. This contrasts with the Arabian Desert Da with three threatened arboreal species, the Gebel Uweinat subdivision with only one species, and the Nubian Desert Dn subdivision with no threatened arboreal species.

Overlay 3: Gap analysis. The map of protected areas in Egypt Fig. This figure demonstrates generally that the protected areas cover most of the locations occupied by the threatened arboreal species. However there are some gaps in the network of protected areas that need to be filled to ensure the conservation of these species, namely, the northern and eastern Sinai the Isthemic Desert phytogeographic subdivision and the Nubian Nile subdivision.

Overlay 4: The map of distribution of arboreal species and the network of protected areas overlaid on map of locations of internationally important bird areas Fig. It is obvious that about 15 of the 34 important bird areas coincide with the areas of high diversity of threatened arboreal species, e. Gebel Elba four areas and the Southern Sinai six areas. This calls for consideration of the establishment of birdwatching facilities in the management plans of these protected areas to encourage ecotourism.

The distribution of protected areas established and proposed. Besides, some of the proposed protected areas include locations of important bird areas, e. Discussion Conversion of natural habitats by man is the major cause of the loss of biological diversity that needs to be surveyed, mapped, monitored and quantified. No survey or monitoring of biodiversity is complete without considering how efforts are being deployed, and how the emerging information will be organized and compiled in databases.

These efforts have to be associated with coordination of information that already exists for better usage in a complementary manner to highlight subtle relation- ships between biota and associated environmental features. The Convention on Biodiversity makes clear that access to good information about biological diversity is key to mobilizing resources in support of conservation and sustainable use of these biological resources.

Biodiversity conservation efforts, in particular, are in need of being informed about where and what species and ecosystems should be targeted for protection, where they occur, and how they and the areas that sustain them should be protected and managed, for the benefit of present and future generations.

Generally, protected areas contribute to conserving biodiversity. However, few pro- tected areas have yet to give full attention to the biodiversity issue.

Many national parks, for example, have been declared primarily for their scenic, touristic and recreational value McNeely, Therefore, all countries should review their protected area systems and identify additional sites of critical importance for conservation of biological diversity.

Natural environments in Egypt are assailed on every side through the unprecedented and rapid expansion of human activities. Fortunately, we still have time to slow down the degradation process and the loss of biodiversity. This can be achieved by 1 initiatives directed at the sustainable development of all habitats and communities in every phytogeographic zone, 2 the establishment of many more protected areas and better protected areas , and 3 the restoration of degraded ecosystems.

The past few decades have witnessed tremendous advances in information technology and efforts to harness the power of these technologies on behalf of biodiversity conservation.

GIS technology comes at the top of the technologies that favor biodiversity conservation applications. The case study presented here demonstrates that using GIS, existing information can be input, managed and analyzed, and the additional information can be identified.

The present study also directs a message to the GIS community of the need for their skills to address biodiversity problems, and for use of GIS as a tool for managing biodiversity databases to achieve a national biodiversity data systems based on a GIS approach. Such systems would assist in the sustainable management of natural resources, which is a major component of any biodiversity strategy.

The present study used the threatened arboreal species and their spatial distribution in Egypt in a surrogacy approach. Areas that are rich in diversity for these species are assumed to be rich in general. The locations of threatened arboreal species were plotted on a base map of Egypt using points to represent their ranges.

Other plotting techniques could have been used; however synthetic methods generalize data into units that are not ecologically relevant, and precision location is lost in the process of generalization. This conclusion is in accordance with that of Davis et al. The ACVs and CCVs of threatened arboreal species in each of the protected areas proved to be appropriate for assessing rank orderings of protected areas in terms of their contribution to the conservation of biodiversity of these species.

The distribution of threatened arboreal species overlaid on the phytogeographical subdivisions. Table 4 show that the first order category is composed of three of the already declared protected areas, and that these areas are also three of the 34 internationally important bird areas in Egypt.

This finding provides evidence that arboreal species can be considered as indicator taxa and that these taxa are associated with other important communities. It also affirms the wisdom of the conservation actions taken by the national environmental agencies in conserving the biodiversity of important ecological regions, e. Gebel Elba and the Sinai. The same composite information, i.

According to this information, three of the proposed protected areas, namely Sallum, the Great Red Sea Reef, and Gebel Maghara, should be given higher priority than the others for establishment in the short term.

The gap analysis conducted in the present study identifies gaps in the network of protected areas, and provides baseline information that can be used for monitoring, assessing and managing the biodiversity conservation of protected areas.

This is evident from Overlay 3 Fig. This analysis also revealed that there are gaps in the network of protected areas, e. It could then be appropriate to consider these gaps in the formation of a national strategic action plan for biodiversity conservation. Conclusions and recommendations 1 The present study proposes guidelines for a model framework for a comprehens- ive biodiversity information system.

More information on other biota may be included. The distribution of threatened arboreal species and the phytogeographical subdivisions overlaid on a map of protected areas established and proposed. By overlaying all the data on living organisms and their spatial distribution, a clear understanding of the status of the biodiversity in Egypt could be gained, and better decisions could be made regarding biodiversity conservation.

The achievement of this goal would repres- ent the real wealth of the country in terms of its biological currency. However, the threatened arboreal species that occur in the Mediterranean and western desert need urgent conservation action to be taken in the form of establishing protected areas and encouraging the declaring of the proposed protected areas of Sallum, the Great Red Sea Reef and Gebel Maghara, as actual protected areas.

This calls for efficient management plan for each of these protector- ates to ensure coherent conservation action, and the use of these protectorates as centers of environmental research activities.

It is recommended that birdwatching areas in these protected areas be established in these protected areas to enhance ecotourism. The present study supported the vertical flow of spatially distributed information driven by GIS. Data can be aggregated and generalized to produce information about gaps and reserves that could suit a wide variety of users including policy makers and researchers, as well as donor-funded projects.

The distribution of the threatened arboreal species, the phytogeographical subdivisions and protected areas established and proposed overlaid on a map of the important bird areas. The author would like to thank Professor M. References Aspinall, R. Geographic information systems: their use for environmental management and nature conservation.

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